This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. (May 2015) |
| Malto | |
|---|---|
| Paharia | |
| माल्टो (पहाड़िया), মাল্টো (পাহাড়িয়া) | |
| Native to | India and Bangladesh |
| Region | Jharkhand; West Bengal; Bihar; Odisha |
| Ethnicity | Malto; Sauria Paharia |
Native speakers | 159,215 (2011 census)[1] |
Dravidian
| |
| Dialects |
|
| Devanagari | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | Either:kmj – Kumarbhag Pahariamjt – Sauria Paharia |
| Glottolog | malt1248 |
| ELP | Sauria Paharia |
Malto (Malto: [maːlʈoː], English: /ˈmæltoʊ/ MAL-toh[2]) or Paharia (Malto: [pahaːɽiaː], English: /pəˈhɑːriə/ pə-HAR-ee-ə[3]), or rarely Rajmahali (Malto: [ɾaːdʒmahaliː]),[4] is a Northern Dravidian language spoken primarily in East India by the Malto people.
Etymology
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Varieties
editThere are two varieties of Malto that are sometimes regarded as separate languages, Kumarbhag Paharia (Devanagari: कुमारभाग पहाड़िया) and Sauria Paharia (Devanagari: सौरिया पहाड़िया). The former is spoken in the Jharkhand and West Bengal states of India, and tiny pockets of Odisha state,[5] and the latter in the West Bengal, Jharkhand, and Bihar states of India.[6] The lexical similarity between the two is estimated to be 80%.
Mal Paharia language may have a Malto-based substrate.[7]
The 2001 census found 224,926 speakers of Malto, of which 83,050 were labelled as speaking Pahariya, and 141,876 spoke other mother tongues (dialects).[8]
Phonology
editMalto has a typical Dravidian vowel system of 10 vowels: /a, e, i, o, u/ and their lengthened forms. Malto also does not have any vowel clusters or diphthongs.[9]
| Bilabial | Dental | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m | n̪ | ɲ | ŋ | |||||
| Stop | voiceless | p | t̪ | ʈ | c | k | q | ||
| voiced | b | d̪ | ɖ | ɟ | g | ʁ | |||
| Fricative | ð | s | h | ||||||
| Approximant | l | ||||||||
| Rhotic | r | ɽ | |||||||
- The cluster /ŋʁ/ is pronounced [ɴɢ].[10]
- Southern and western dialects have /ʔ/ instead of /q/ and /h/ instead of /ʁ/ and /ŋʁ/. Coda /ð/ is an allophone of /d̪/.[10]
- /ʁ/ may actually be a voiced uvular stop [ɢ].[11][12]
Writing system
editSeeing as how the literacy rates amongst the Malto people is very low, it makes sense that the language is not a traditionally written language. When the language had first been memorialized in writing (by Ernest Droese in 1884) it shared the Devanagari writing system as with many languages in India. The written portion of the language being supplemented much later on in its life, gives the effect of Malto remaining authentic through the dialogue of their culture.
Grammar
editThe general grammar of the language is not dissimilar from that of the surrounding communities. One interesting aspect of their culture influencing the syntax of the language is present in its assignment of gender to nouns.
Gender
editThe gender of words in the Malto language is classified as either being masculine, feminine, or neutral. The masculine form is present when denoting anything related to man or vicious deities. Likewise the feminine form is present for nouns denoting women, the Supreme Being, and minor deities. Although the colloquial term for father 'abba' is a traditionally feminine noun, it is meant to show respect. Coupled with the Supreme Being also being feminine, the respect for the women of the community is evident through their grammar. Otherwise nouns are referred to with neutral gender, which by far makes it the most popular form.
References
edit- ^ "Census of India Website : Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India". www.censusindia.gov.in. Retrieved 2018-07-05.
- ^ "Malto". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
- ^ "Paharia". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
- ^ "Rajmahali". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
- ^ Kumarbhag Paharia at Ethnologue (25th ed., 2022)
- ^ Sauria Paharia at Ethnologue (25th ed., 2022)
- ^ Masica, Colin P. (1993), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Cambridge Language Surveys, Cambridge University Press, pp. 26–27, ISBN 0521299446
- ^ "Abstract of speakers' strength of languages and mother tongues". Census of India. 2001.
- ^ Steever, Sanford B. (2015). The Dravidian Languages. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-91164-4.
- ^ a b Kobayashi (2017), p. 39.
- ^ Das 1973
- ^ Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju (2003). The Dravidian languages. Cambridge language surveys. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 150. ISBN 978-0-521-77111-5.
Bibliography
edit- Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju (2003), The Dravidian Languages, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-77111-0
- Droese, Ernest (1884), Introduction to the Malto Language, Agra: Secundra Orphanage Press
- Frawley, William J. (2003). International encyclopedia of linguistics (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 468. ISBN 0195139771. Retrieved 11 May 2015.
- Comrie, Bernard (November 2000). "Reviewed Work: The Dravidian Languages by Sanford B. Steever". Journal of Linguistics. 36 (3). Cambridge University Press: 640–644. JSTOR 4176629.
- Tuttle, Edwin H. (1923). "Dravidian Z". The American Journal of Philology. 44 (1). The Johns Hopkins University Press: 71–72. doi:10.2307/289648. JSTOR 289648.
Further reading
edit- A. Sisir Kumar Das (1973). Structure of Malto. Dept. of Linguistics. Vol. 32. Annamalainagar: Annamalai University.
- Mahapatra, Bijaya Prasad (1976). The phonology and morphology of malto with ethnosemantic notes (PhD). University of Calcutta. hdl:10603/158129.
- Mahapatra, B. P. (1979). Malto: An Ethnosemantic Study. Central Institute of Indian Languages occasional monographs series. Vol. 15. Central Institute of Indian Languages.
- Andronov, Mikhail S. (2008). Язык Малто [Jazik Malto]. LINCOM Studies in Asian Linguistics (in Russian). Vol. 74. LINCOM Europa. ISBN 9783895861284.
- Puttaswamy, Chaithra (2009). Descriptive analysis of verbs in Malto (PhD thesis). SOAS University of London. doi:10.25501/SOAS.00028762.
- Kobayashi, Masato (2012). Texts and Grammar of Malto (PDF). Vizianagaram, India: Kotoba Books. ISBN 978-4-9906322-0-5.
- Kobayashi, Masato (2017). The Kurux Language: Grammar, Texts and Lexicon. BRILL. ISBN 9789004347663.
- Steever, Sanford B. (2019). "Malto". In Sanford B. Steever (ed.). The Dravidian Languages (Second ed.). London & New York: Routledge. pp. 433–468.
- Bokade, Shubham Suresh (2025). Switch Reference in Malto (Thesis). Amarkantak: Indira Gandhi National Tribal University. hdl:10603/706784.
