
1. Eksolabial, 2. Endolabial, 3. Dental, 4. Alveolar, 5. Pasca-alveolar, 6. Pra-palat, 7. Palatal, 8. Velar, 9. Uvular, 10. Faringeal, 11. Glotal, 12. Epiglotal, 13. Radikal, 14. Posterodorsal, 15. Anterodorsal, 16. Laminan, 17. Apikal, 18. Sub-apikal
Asal mula ujaran berbeda dari asal mula bahasa karena bahasa tidak selalu diwujudkan secara lisan; bahasa dapat pula dituliskan atau diisyaratkan. Ujaran merupakan aspek mendasar dalam komunikasi manusia dan memainkan peranan penting dalam kehidupan sehari-hari. Melalui ujaran, manusia dapat menyalurkan pikiran, perasaan, dan gagasan, serta membangun kemampuan untuk berhubungan dengan sesama dan membentuk realitas kolektif.[1][2]
Berbagai upaya ilmiah telah dilakukan untuk menjelaskan secara empiris bagaimana ujaran muncul dalam diri manusia, meskipun hingga kini belum ada satu teori pun yang memperoleh kesepakatan umum.
Primata non-manusia, seperti halnya banyak spesies hewan lainnya, telah mengembangkan mekanisme khusus untuk menghasilkan bunyi sebagai sarana komunikasi sosial.[3] Namun demikian, tidak ada satu pun monyet atau kera yang menggunakan lidah untuk tujuan tersebut.[4][5] Penggunaan lidah, bibir, serta bagian-bagian tubuh lain yang dapat digerakkan secara luar biasa oleh spesies manusia menempatkan ujaran pada kategori yang sepenuhnya berbeda, menjadikan kemunculan evolusionernya sebagai tantangan teoretis yang menarik di mata banyak cendekiawan.[6]
Catatan
sunting- ^ Oxford English Dictionary, Noam Chomsky.
- ^ Oxford English Dictionary
- ^ Kelemen, G. (1963). Comparative anatomy and performance of the vocal organ in vertebrates. Dalam R. Busnel (penyunting), Acoustic behavior of animals. Amsterdam: Elsevier, hlm. 489–521.
- ^ Riede, T.; Bronson, E.; Hatzikirou, H.; Zuberbühler, K. (Jan 2005). "Vocal production mechanisms in a non-human primate: morphological data and a model" (PDF). J Hum Evol. 48 (1): 85–96. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2004.10.002. PMID 15656937.
- ^ Riede, T.; Bronson, E.; Hatzikirou, H.; Zuberbühler, K. (February 2006). "Multiple discontinuities in nonhuman vocal tracts – A reply". Journal of Human Evolution. 50 (2): 222–225. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2005.10.005.
- ^ Fitch, W.Tecumseh (July 2000). "The evolution of speech: a comparative review". Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 4 (7): 258–267. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.22.3754. doi:10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01494-7. PMID 10859570. S2CID 14706592.
Bacaan lanjutan
sunting- Bickerton, D. 2009. Adam's Tongue. New York: Hill and Wang.
- Botha, R. and C. Knight (eds) 2009. The Prehistory of Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Botha, R. and C. Knight (eds) 2009. The Cradle of Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Burling, R. 2005. The Talking Ape. How language evolved. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Christiansen, M. and S. Kirby (eds), 2003. Language Evolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Corballis, M. C., 2002. From Hand to Mouth: The Origins of Language. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press.
- Deacon, T. W., 1997. The Symbolic Species: The Co-evolution of Language and the Brain. New York: W.W. Norton.
- de Boer. 2001. "The Origins of Vowels Systems", Oxford University Press.
- de Grolier, E. (ed.), 1983. The Origin and Evolution of Language. Paris: Harwood Academic Publishers.
- Deutscher, G. 2005. The Unfolding of Language. The evolution of mankind's greatest invention. London: Random House.
- Dor, D., C. Knight and J. Lewis (eds), 2014. The Social Origins of Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Dunbar, R. I. M. 1996. Grooming, Gossip and the Evolution of Language. London: Faber and Faber.
- Dunbar, R. I. M.; Knight, Chris; Power, Camilla. (1999). The evolution of culture: an interdisciplinary view. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-1076-1. OCLC 807340111.
- Fitch, W. T. 2010. The Evolution of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Harnad, S. R., H. D. Steklis and J. Lancaster (eds), 1976. Origins and Evolution of Language and Speech. New York: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.
- Hrdy, S. B. 2009. Mothers and others. The evolutionary origins of mutual understanding. London and Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
- Hurford, J. R. 2007. The Origins of Meaning. Language in the light of evolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Hurford, James R.; Studdert-Kennedy, Michael.; Knight, Chris (1998). Approaches to the evolution of language: social and cognitive bases. Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-63964-4. OCLC 37742390.
- Kenneally, C. 2007. The First Word. The search for the origins of language. New York: Viking.
- Lenneberg, E. H. 1967. Biological Foundations of Language. New York: Wiley.
- Leroi-Gourhan, A. 1993. Gesture and Speech. Trans. A. Bostock Berger. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
- Lieberman, Philip. (1991). Uniquely human: the evolution of speech, thought, and selfless behavior. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-92182-5. OCLC 21764294.
- Lieberman, Philip. (2006). Toward an evolutionary biology of language. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-02184-6. OCLC 62766735.
- Logan, Robert K. 2007. "The Extended Mind: The Emergence of Language, the Human Mind and Culture. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
- MacNeilage, P. 2008. The Origin of Speech. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Maynard Smith, J. and D. Harper 2003. Animal Signals. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Oudeyer, P-Y. (2006) "Self-Organization in the Evolution of Speech", Oxford University Press.
- Tallerman, M. and K. Gibson (eds), 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Language Evolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Tomasello, M. 2008. Origins of Human Communication. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
- Zahavi, A. and A. Zahavi 1997. The Handicap Principle. A missing piece in Darwin's puzzle. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Pranala luar
sunting- Interactive sagittal section Diarsipkan 2012-06-30 di Wayback Machine.
- Design features of speech Diarsipkan 2012-07-22 di Wayback Machine.
- Evolution of speech (anatomical and neural bases). Diarsipkan 2014-06-11 di Wayback Machine.
- Ritual and the origins of language.[pranala nonaktif permanen]
- Decoding Chomsky[pranala nonaktif permanen]