Genosida dalam sejarah 📖 Wikipedia

Genosida adalah penghancuran yang disengaja terhadap suatu bangsa^[a] secara keseluruhan atau sebagian. Istilah ini dicetuskan pada tahun 1944 oleh Raphael Lemkin. Istilah ini didefinisikan dalam Pasal 2 Konvensi tentang Pencegahan dan Penghukuman Kejahatan Genosida (CPPCG) tahun 1948 sebagai "salah satu tindakan berikut yang dilakukan dengan maksud untuk menghancurkan, secara keseluruhan atau sebagian, suatu kelompok nasional, etnis, ras, atau agama, seperti: membunuh anggota kelompok; menyebabkan kerusakan fisik atau mental yang serius terhadap anggota kelompok; dengan sengaja menimbulkan kondisi kehidupan kelompok, yang dimaksudkan untuk menyebabkan kehancuran fisik secara keseluruhan atau sebagian; memaksakan tindakan yang dimaksudkan untuk mencegah kelahiran dalam kelompok; [dan] memindahkan secara paksa anak-anak kelompok tersebut ke kelompok lain."^[1]

Pembukaan CPPCG menyatakan bahwa "genosida adalah kejahatan menurut hukum internasional, bertentangan dengan semangat dan tujuan Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa dan dikutuk oleh dunia yang beradab", dan juga menyatakan bahwa "pada semua periode sejarah genosida telah menimbulkan kerugian besar bagi kemanusiaan."^[1] Genosida secara luas dianggap sebagai lambang kejahatan manusia,^[2] dan telah disebut sebagai "kejahatan dari kejahatan".^[3]^[4]^[5] Gugus Tugas Ketidakstabilan Politik memperkirakan bahwa 43 genosida terjadi antara tahun 1956 dan 2016, yang mengakibatkan 50 juta kematian.^[6] UNHCR memperkirakan bahwa 50 juta orang lainnya telah mengungsi akibat episode kekerasan tersebut.^[6]

Lihat pula

sunting

Catatan

sunting

^ Ditetapkan berdasarkan Konvensi Genosida sebagai "nasional, etnis, rasial, atau keagamaan."

Referensi

sunting

^ ^a ^b "Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide". Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. 12 January 1951. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 11 December 2005. Note: "ethnical", although unusual, is found in several dictionaries.
^ Towner 2011, hlm. 625–638; Lang 2005, hlm. 5–17: "On any ranking of crimes or atrocities, it would be difficult to name an act or event regarded as more heinous. Genocide arguably appears now as the most serious offense in humanity's lengthy—and, we recognize, still growing—list of moral or legal violations."; Gerlach 2010, hlm. 6: "Genocide is an action-oriented model designed for moral condemnation, prevention, intervention or punishment. In other words, genocide is a normative, action-oriented concept made for the political struggle, but in order to be operational it leads to simplification, with a focus on government policies."; Hollander 2012, hlm. 149–189: "... genocide has become the yardstick, the gold standard for identifying and measuring political evil in our times. The label 'genocide' confers moral distinction on its victims and indisputable condemnation on its perpetrators."
^ Schabas, William A. (2000). Genocide in International Law: The Crimes of Crimes (PDF) (dalam bahasa Inggris) (Edisi 1st). Cambridge University Press. hlm. 9, 92, 227. ISBN 0-521-78262-7. Diarsipkan dari asli (PDF) tanggal 16 June 2024.
^ Straus, Scott (2022). Graziosi, Andrea; Sysyn, Frank E. (ed.). Genocide: The Power and Problems of a Concept (dalam bahasa Inggris). McGill-Queen's University Press. hlm. 223, 240. ISBN 978-0-2280-0951-1.
^ Rugira, Lonzen (2022-04-20). "Why Genocide is "the crime of crimes"". Pan African Review (dalam bahasa American English). Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 13 June 2024. Diakses tanggal 11 April 2024.
^ ^a ^b Anderton, Charles H.; Brauer, Jurgen, ed. (2016). Economic Aspects of Genocides, Other Mass Atrocities, and Their Prevention. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-937829-6.

Sumber

sunting

Akande, Dapo; Higgins, Rosalyn; Sivakumaran, Sandesh; Webb, Philippa (2018). Oppenheim's International Law: United Nations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-192-53718-8 – via Google Books.
Bachman, Jeffrey S. (2017). The United States and Genocide: (Re)Defining the Relationship with Genocide (Edisi E-book). London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-69216-8 – via Google Books.
Bartrop, Paul R.; Jacobs, Steven Leonard, ed. (2014). Modern Genocide: The Definitive Resource and Document Collection. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-610-69364-6 – via Google Books.
Bellamy, Alex J. (2012). Massacres and Morality: Mass Atrocities in an Age of Civilian Immunity. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-199-28842-7.
Bloxham, Donald; Moses, A. Dirk (2010). "Editors' Introduction: Changing Themes in the Study of Genocide". Dalam Bloxham, Donald; Moses, A. Dirk (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies. New York: Oxford University Press. hlm. 1–15. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199232116.013.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-923211-6.
Chalk, Frank; Jonassohn, Kurt (1990). The History and Sociology of Genocide: Analyses and Case Studies. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-04446-1.
Farid, Hilmar (March 2005). "Indonesia's original sin: mass killings and capitalist expansion, 1965–66". Inter-Asia Cultural Studies. 6 (1). Routledge: 3–16. doi:10.1080/1462394042000326879. ISSN 1464-9373. S2CID 145130614.
Fein, Helen (October 1993). "Revolutionary and Antirevolutionary Genocides: A Comparison of State Murders in Democratic Kampuchea, 1975 to 1979, and in Indonesia, 1965 to 1966". Comparative Studies in Society and History. 35 (4). Cambridge University Press: 796–823. doi:10.1017/S0010417500018715. ISSN 0010-4175. JSTOR 179183. S2CID 145561816.
Forge, John (2012). Designed to Kill: The Case Against Weapons Research. Springer. ISBN 978-9400757356.
Fraser, James E. (2010). "Early Medieval Europe: The Case of Britain and Ireland". Dalam Bloxham, Donald; Moses, A. Dirk (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies. Oxford University Press. hlm. 259–279. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199232116.013.0014. ISBN 978-0-19-161361-6.
Gellately, Robert; Kiernan, Ben (2003). The Specter of Genocide: Mass Murder in Historical Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-52750-7 – via Google Books.
Gerlach, Christian (2010). Extremely Violent Societies: Mass Violence in the Twentieth-Century World. Cambridge University Press. hlm. 6. ISBN 978-1-139-49351-2 – via Google Books.
Hitchcock, Robert K.; Koperski, Thomas E. (2008). "Genocides against Indigenous Peoples". Dalam Stone, Dan (ed.). The Historiography of Genocide. Palgrave Macmillan. hlm. 577–618. ISBN 9781403992192.
Hoffman, Stefan-Ludwig (2010). Human Rights in the Twentieth Century. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-49410-6 – via Google Books.
Hollander, Paul (1 July 2012). "Perspectives on Norman Naimark's Stalin's Genocides". Journal of Cold War Studies. 14 (3): 149–189. doi:10.1162/JCWS_a_00250. S2CID 57560838.
Irvin-Erickson, Douglas (2023). "The history of Rapha'l Lemkin and the UN Genocide Convention". Dalam Simon, David J.; Kahn, Leora (ed.). Handbook of Genocide Studies (dalam bahasa Inggris). Edward Elgar Publishing. hlm. 7–26. doi:10.4337/9781800379343.00009. ISBN 9781800379336.
Jones, Adam (2006). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Routledge/Taylor & Francis Publishers. ISBN 978-0-415-35385-4 – via Google Books. Excerpts Chapter 1: Genocide in prehistory, antiquity, and early modernity Diarsipkan 10 October 2017 di Wayback Machine.
Jones, Adam (2010). "3. Genocides of Indigenous Peoples". Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction (Edisi 2nd). Routledge. ISBN 978-0415486187.
Jongman, Albert J., ed. (1996). Contemporary Genocides: Causes, Cases, Consequences. Leiden, Netherlands: Interdisciplinary Research Program on the Root Causes of Human Rights Violations.
Lang, Berel (2005). "The Evil in Genocide". Genocide and Human Rights: A Philosophical Guide (dalam bahasa Inggris). Palgrave Macmillan UK. hlm. 5–17. doi:10.1057/9780230554832_1. ISBN 978-0-230-55483-2.
Lemos, T. M.; Taylor, Tristan S.; Kiernan, Ben (2023). "Introduction to Volume I". Dalam Kiernan, Ben; Lemos, T. M.; Taylor, Tristan S. (ed.). The Cambridge World History of Genocide. Vol. 1: Genocide in the Ancient, Medieval and Premodern Worlds. Cambridge University Press. hlm. 31–56. doi:10.1017/9781108655989.003. ISBN 978-1-108-65598-9.
Maybury-Lewis, David (2002). "Genocide against Indigenous peoples". Annihilating Difference: The Anthropology of Genocide. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520230293.
Moses, A. Dirk (2004). Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History. Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-1571814104.
Moses, A. Dirk (2010). "Raphael Lemkin, Culture, and the Concept of Genocide". Dalam Bloxham, Donald; Moses, A. Dirk (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies. New York: Oxford University Press. hlm. 19ff. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199232116.013.0002. ISBN 978-0-19-923211-6.
Naimark, Norman M. (2017). Genocide: A World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-976527-0.
Rosenbaum, Alan S. (2001). Is the Holocaust Unique? Perspectives on Comparative Genocide (Edisi 2nd). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-367-00714-0.
Schabas, William (2000). Genocide in International Law: The Crimes of Crimes. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-78790-1.
Schabas, William A. (2009). Genocide in International Law: The Crime of Crimes (Edisi 2nd). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-71900-1.
Staub, Ervin (1989). The Roots of Evil: The Origins of Genocide and Other Group Violence. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-42214-7 – via Google Books.
Stone, Dan (2010). Histories of the Holocaust. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-956679-2.
Towner, Emil B. (2011). "Quantifying Genocide: What Are We Really Counting (On)?". JAC. 31 (3/4): 625–638. ISSN 2162-5190. JSTOR 41709663.
Weiss-Wendt, Anton (December 2005). "Hostage of Politics: Raphael Lemkin on 'Soviet Genocide'". Journal of Genocide Research. 7 (4). Routledge: 551–559. doi:10.1080/14623520500350017. ISSN 1462-3528. S2CID 144612446.

Bacaan lebih lanjut

sunting

Andreopoulos, George J. (1997). Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-1616-5 – via Google Books.
Asociación Americana para el Avance de la Ciencia (1999). "Metodología intermuestra I: introducción y resumen" [Inter-sample methodology I: introduction and summary]. Instrumentes Legales y Operativos Para el Funcionamiento de la Comisión Para el Esclarecimiento Histórico (dalam bahasa Spanyol). Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 6 May 2013.
Bonwick, James (1870). The Last of the Tasmanians; or, The Black War of Van Diemen's Land. London: Sampson Low, Son, & Marston.
Braudel, Fernand (1984). Civilization and Capitalism. Vol. III: The Perspective of the World. (in French 1979).
Chakma, Kabita; Hill, Glen (2013). "Indigenous Women and Culture in the Colonized Chittagong Hills Tracts of Bangladesh". Dalam Visweswaran, Kamala (ed.). Everyday Occupations: Experiencing Militarism in South Asia and the Middle East. University of Pennsylvania Press. hlm. 132–157. ISBN 978-0812244878.
Clarke, Michael Edmund (2004). In the Eye of Power: China and Xinjiang from the Qing Conquest to the 'New Great Game' for Central Asia, 1759–2004 (PDF) (Thesis). Griffith University, Brisbane: Dept. of International Business & Asian Studies. Diarsipkan dari asli (PDF) tanggal 10 April 2008.
Comisión para el Esclarecimiento Histórico: Agudización (1999). "Agudización de la Violencia y Militarización del Estado (1979–1985)" [Intensification of Violence and Militarization of the State (1979–1985)]. Guatemala: Memoria del Silencio (dalam bahasa Spanyol). Programa de Ciencia y Derechos Humanos, Asociación Americana del Avance de la Ciencia. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 6 May 2013. Diakses tanggal 20 September 2014.
Cribb, Robert; Coppel, Charles (2009). "A genocide that never was: explaining the myth of anti-Chinese massacres in Indonesia, 1965–66". Journal of Genocide Research. 11 (4). Taylor & Francis: 447–465. doi:10.1080/14623520903309503. ISSN 1469-9494. S2CID 145011789.
Cooper, Allan D. (3 August 2006). "Reparations for the Herero Genocide: Defining the limits of international litigation". African Affairs. 106 (422): 113–126. doi:10.1093/afraf/adl005.
Cronon, William (1983). Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England. Macmillan. ISBN 0-8090-1634-6.
Crowe, David M. (2013). "War Crimes and Genocide in History". Dalam Crowe, David M. (ed.). Crimes of State Past and Present: Government-Sponsored Atrocities and International Legal Responses. London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1317986812 – via Google Books.
Crosby, Alfred W. (1986). Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900–1900. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-45690-8.
Curthoys, Ann (2008). "Genocide in Tasmania". Dalam Moses, A. Dirk (ed.). Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History. Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-1-84545-452-4 – via Google Books.
Diamond, Jared (1993). The Third Chimpanzee: The Evolution and Future of the Human Animal. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-098403-8.
Finnegan, Richard B.; McCarron, Edward (2000). Ireland: Historical Echoes, Contemporary Politics. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-3247-5 – via Google Books.
Frank, Matthew James (2008). Expelling the Germans: British opinion and post-1945 population transfer in context. Oxford historical monographs. Oxford University Press. hlm. 5. ISBN 978-0-19-923364-9.
Friedrichsmeyer, Sara; Lennox, Sara; Zantop, Susanne (1998). The Imperialist Imagination: German Colonialism and Its Legacy. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-06682-7 – via Google Books.
Glynn, Ian; Glynn, Jenifer (2004). The Life and Death of Smallpox. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Gammer, M. (2006). The Lone Wolf and the Bear: Three Centuries of Chechen Defiance of Russian Rule. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 978-1-85065-748-4 – via Google Books.
Gray, Richard A. (1994). "Genocide in the Chittagong Hill tracts of Bangladesh". Reference Services Review. 22 (4): 59–79. doi:10.1108/eb049231.
Goble, Paul (15 July 2005). "Circassians demand Russian apology for 19th century genocide". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 5 January 2007.
Jaimoukha, Amjad (2004). The Chechens: A Handbook. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-203-35643-2 – via Google Books.
Kennedy, Liam (2016). Unhappy the Land: The Most Oppressed People Ever, the Irish?. Dublin: Irish Academic Press. ISBN 9781785370472.
Kiernan, Ben (2002). "Cover-up and Denial of Genocide: Australia, the USA, East Timor, and the Aborigines" (PDF). Critical Asian Studies. 34 (2): 163–92. doi:10.1080/14672710220146197. S2CID 146339164. Diarsipkan dari asli (PDF) tanggal 16 March 2003.
——— (2007). Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-10098-3.
Kinealy, Christine (1995). This Great Calamity: The Irish Famine 1845–52. Gill & Macmillan. hlm. 357. ISBN 978-1-57098-034-3.
King, Michael (2000). Moriori: A People Rediscovered. Viking. ISBN 978-0-14-010391-5 – via Google Books.
Kopel, Dave; Gallant, Paul; Eisen, Joanne D. (11 April 2003). "A Moriori Lesson: a brief history of pacifism". National Review Online. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 11 April 2003.
Levene, Mark (2005). Genocide in the Age of the Nation State: Volume 2: The Rise of the West and Coming Genocide. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84511-057-4 – via Google Books.
Levene, Mark (2008). "Empires, Native Peoples, and Genocides". Dalam Moses, A. Dirk (ed.). Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History. Oxford and New York: Berghahn Books. hlm. 183–204. ISBN 978-1-84545-452-4 – via Google Books.
Madley, Benjamin (2008). "From Terror to Genocide: Britain's Tasmanian Penal Colony and Australia's History Wars". Journal of British Studies. 47 (1): 77–106. doi:10.1086/522350. JSTOR 10.1086/522350. S2CID 146190611.
McCarthy, Justin (1995), Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821–1922, Darwin
Mey, Wolfgang, ed. (1984). Genocide in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh (PDF). Copenhagen: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA).
Moshin, A. (2003). The Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh: On the Difficult Road to Peace. Boulder, Col.: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
Niewyk, Donald L.; Nicosia, Francis R. (2000). The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust. Columbia University Press. hlm. 45. ISBN 9780231112000. The Holocaust is commonly defined as the murder of more than 5,000,000 Jews by the Germans in World War II.
O'Brien, Sharon (2004). "The Chittagong Hill Tracts". Dalam Shelton, Dinah (ed.). Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity. Macmillan Library Reference. hlm. 176–77.
Ó Gráda, Cormac (2000). Black '47 and Beyond: The Great Irish Famine in History, Economy, and Memory. Princeton University Press. hlm. 10. ISBN 978-0-691-07015-5.
Olusoga, David; Erichsen, Casper W. (2010). The Kaiser's Holocaust: Germany's Forgotten Genocide and the Colonial Roots of Nazism. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0571231416.
Perdue, Peter C. (2005). China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia. Cambridge, MA; London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01684-2.
Robins, Nicholas; Jones, Adam (2009). Genocides by the Oppressed. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-22077-6 – via Google Books.
Roy, Rajkumari (2000). Land Rights of the Indigenous Peoples of the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh. Copenhagen: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs.
Rubinstein, W. D. (2004). Genocide: A History. Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-582-50601-5 – via Google Books.
Rummel, Rudolph J. (1998). Statistics of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900. LIT Verlag Münster. ISBN 978-3-8258-4010-5 – via Google Books.
Sarkin-Hughes, Jeremy (2008). Colonial Genocide and Reparations Claims in the 21st Century: The Socio-Legal Context of Claims under International Law by the Herero against Germany for Genocide in Namibia, 1904–1908. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-313-36257-6 – via Google Books.
Sheriff, Abdul; Ferguson, Ed (1991). Zanzibar under colonial rule. J. Currey. ISBN 978-0-8214-0996-1 – via Google Books.
Sommer, Tomasz (2010). "Execute the Poles: The Genocide of Poles in the Soviet Union, 1937–1938. Documents from Headquarters". The Polish Review. 55 (4): 417–436. doi:10.2307/27920673. JSTOR 27920673. S2CID 151099905.
Speller, Ian (2007). "An African Cuba? Britain and the Zanzibar Revolution, 1964". The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History. 35 (2): 1–35. doi:10.1080/03086530701337666. S2CID 159656717.
Stannard, David E. (1993). American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-508557-0. ... estimated population for the year 1769 ... Nationwide by this time only about one-third of one percent of America's population—250,000 out of 76,000,000 people—were natives. The worst human holocaust the world had ever witnessed ... finally had leveled off. There was, at last, almost no one left to kill.
Tan, Mely G. (2008). Etnis Tionghoa di Indonesia: Kumpulan Tulisan [Ethnic Chinese in Indonesia: A Collection of Writings]. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia. ISBN 978-979-461-689-5.
van Bruineßen, Martin (1994), "Genocide in Kurdistan? The suppression of the Dersim rebellion in Turkey (1937–38) and the chemical war against the Iraqi Kurds (1988)", dalam Andreopoulos, George J. (ed.), Conceptual and historical dimensions of genocide (PDF), University of Pennsylvania Press, hlm. 141–70, diarsipkan dari asli (PDF) tanggal 21 Mei 2013, diakses tanggal 24 Desember 2013
Vanthemsche, Guy (2012). Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521194211 – via Google Books.
Weisbord, Robert G. (2003). "The King, the Cardinal, and the Pope: Leopold II's genocide in the Congo and the Vatican". Journal of Genocide Research. 5: 35–45. doi:10.1080/14623520305651. S2CID 73371517.
Woodham-Smith, Cecil (1964). "The Great Hunger: Ireland 1845–1849". Signet: New York: 19.
Wright, Ronald (2004). A Short History of Progress. Toronto: House of Anansi Press. ISBN 978-0-88784-706-6.

[1] Ditetapkan berdasarkan Konvensi Genosida sebagai "nasional, etnis, rasial, atau keagamaan."

[CPPCG-2] "Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide". Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. 12 January 1951. Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 11 December 2005. Note: "ethnical", although unusual, is found in several dictionaries.

[3] Towner 2011, hlm. 625–638; Lang 2005, hlm. 5–17: "On any ranking of crimes or atrocities, it would be difficult to name an act or event regarded as more heinous. Genocide arguably appears now as the most serious offense in humanity's lengthy—and, we recognize, still growing—list of moral or legal violations."; Gerlach 2010, hlm. 6: "Genocide is an action-oriented model designed for moral condemnation, prevention, intervention or punishment. In other words, genocide is a normative, action-oriented concept made for the political struggle, but in order to be operational it leads to simplification, with a focus on government policies."; Hollander 2012, hlm. 149–189: "... genocide has become the yardstick, the gold standard for identifying and measuring political evil in our times. The label 'genocide' confers moral distinction on its victims and indisputable condemnation on its perpetrators."

[4] Schabas, William A. (2000). Genocide in International Law: The Crimes of Crimes (PDF) (dalam bahasa Inggris) (Edisi 1st). Cambridge University Press. hlm. 9, 92, 227. ISBN 0-521-78262-7. Diarsipkan dari asli (PDF) tanggal 16 June 2024.

[5] Straus, Scott (2022). Graziosi, Andrea; Sysyn, Frank E. (ed.). Genocide: The Power and Problems of a Concept (dalam bahasa Inggris). McGill-Queen's University Press. hlm. 223, 240. ISBN 978-0-2280-0951-1.

[6] Rugira, Lonzen (2022-04-20). "Why Genocide is "the crime of crimes"". Pan African Review (dalam bahasa American English). Diarsipkan dari asli tanggal 13 June 2024. Diakses tanggal 11 April 2024.

[auto-7] Anderton, Charles H.; Brauer, Jurgen, ed. (2016). Economic Aspects of Genocides, Other Mass Atrocities, and Their Prevention. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-937829-6.

[a]

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

Genosida dalam sejarah 📖 Wikipedia

Daftar isi

Lihat pula

Catatan

Referensi

Sumber

Bacaan lebih lanjut

📚 Artikel Terkait di Wikipedia

Genosida

Penyangkalan genosida Armenia

Politik pengakuan genosida

Etnosida

Genosida Guatemala

Genosida Timor Timur

Genosida Dzungar

Genosida Rwanda

Indofilm: Era Baru Streaming Film Online, Evolusi dari LK21, Layarkaca21, IDLIX, dan Rebahin

Menggantikan Estafet LK21 dan Layarkaca21

Menyempurnakan Pengalaman IDLIX dan Rebahin

Kesimpulan: Destinasi Streaming Ultimate